Devise a Marketing Strategy to present to the Marketing Director Essay Example for Free

Devise a Marketing Strategy to present to the Marketing Director Essay In this case study, I have been given a number of roles and my task is to consider and provide appropriate answers in the relevant business context where you apply learning from my course of study so far and my own work experiences. Question 1 I am the supervisor in the marketing department and I believe that there is scope for gaining more sales in the standardised sector of the market because of quality differences between my product and those of larger competitors. Devise a Marketing Strategy to present to the Marketing Director designed to achieve this objective Corporate Objectives The Furniture Company, based in a small town in Lancashire, develops, manufactures and markets quality furniture. The firm has a very good reputation throughout the entire region for all its products. The Furniture Companys Supervisor of the Marketing Department is at present pursuing a strategy to grow its market share in the standardised section of the market because of quality differences between their product and those of larger companies. Marketing Audit Internal Product High quality standardised products targeted at C1/C2 segments. Considered to be higher quality than those of larger competitors. The firm has a very good reputation for quality products. Pricing -Currently sold to up market retail outlets and on all sales are there is a very high profit margin on a relatively low turnover. Prices are higher than for similar type products in the large retail outlets due to economies of scale in purchasing. Place Customers mainly consist C1/C2 for the standardised furniture. Potential customers visit the companys display showroom, fully manned by an accounts clerk, a salesperson, both of whom are full-time and two part-time salespersons at weekend. Promotion Very little advertising is done. Current advertising is mainly done via local press, and via direct mail all aimed locally. Advertising spend tends to be about 3% of revenue, with higher marketing spend within peak months. External Social Since consumer trends are always changing, as are several of the products. With the traditional furniture, trends have small effect on sales. Economic Figures to be confirmed. There is a spend of over à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½750,000 within East Lancashire in the furniture market. The predicted growth for next year is 2% due to current consumer spend (interest rate currently stands at XX, and inflation 2.6%). Competitive The Furniture Company faces many competitors, on its retail side are many, and on local scale there are approximately 10 similar sized companies, although, the firm has a very good reputation throughout the entire region for all its products. Customer Audit Standardised products are aimed at C1/C2 segments. The competitions products were viewed as inferior to those of The Furniture Company, due to highly skilled craftsmanship. SWOT Analysis Strengths * Availability, either via local showroom, situated just off motorway or via retail outlet * Access, Full showroom with manned staff * Established, very good reputation throughout the region * Established up market retail outlet supplier * Higher quality than those of larger competitors * Innovation, constantly designing new furniture for changing market Weaknesses * Prices are slightly higher than for similar type products Opportunities * Market Development * Selling to mid-market retail outlets Nationwide * Expanding product into Europe worldwide Threats * Prices are higher than for similar type products in the large retail outlets * Unable to keep up with supplier demand Marketing Objectives and Strategies Market Development Ansoffs Matrix is a well-known Marketing Tool for deciding upon strategies for growth. First published in the Harvard Business Review (1957) in an article called Strategies for Diversification (see below example). Market Penetration By marketing our existing products to our existing customers, thus increasing revenue, by promoting the product, repositioning the brand. The aim is to encourage people to switch from other furniture manufacturers. Market Development Marketing the product in a new market/target audience. By introducing the product into a new region and also exporting the product. Market Extension/Product Development Selling the existing standard furniture into new markets, nationwide and worldwide, as the product already has a strong marketing competence. Diversification Not required Example of The Ansoff Matrix Product Life Cycle (see diagram below) Launch/Introduction The product is introduced into new markets and heavily promoted to create awareness. High costs. Due to success in the current markets, risk is fairly low. Growth Higher volume of sales enables The Furniture Company to benefit from economies of scale. Products become more profitable as sales rise and costs fall. Advertising spend is still high and focuses on building upon a brand name, ready for the maturity and decline stage to introduce new furniture after the brand has been established. Maturity Sales grow at a decreasing rate and then stabilise. Brand awareness is crucial in continuing success. The company retains its share of the market by capturing sales from weaker rivals by ensuring consistently quality furniture. Decline At this point there is a downturn in the market for this particular product. Sales and profit decline. New products are introduced or consumer tastes have changed. Product can be removed from the market at this stage and replaced by new furniture or profits can be improved by reducing marketing spend and cost cutting. Elimination/Withdrawal (or extension) When faced with decline in sales, the company will need to decide whether the decline is Temporary, Terminal and Irreversible or Capable of being reversed by an adjustment in the marketing mix Extension To rejuvenate the product to prolong its life by changing the product, the brand, the way it is promoted or the distribution channel. Question 2 As supervisor in the marketing department one of my roles is to devise expansion strategies as question 1. I believe, however, that the high quality hand crafted furniture could sell to a national and ultimately international market especially if at some future point the U.K. joins the single currency. At present these products sell to a regional market and I have already put this idea to the Marketing Director and received a positive response to the extent that he wants you to do a presentation to the full board of Directors on this idea Devise a promotional campaign to be presented to the Board that would reach a national market for the higher quality products. Marketing is defined as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying the requirements of customer profitably. Product Introduce the standardised range and also high quality furniture into mid-market and up-market retail outlets nationwide. The standardised range is higher quality than those of competitors. The handcrafted furniture provides high quality furniture aimed at the higher end of the market. Price Cost for the standardised product is slightly higher than its competitors. This can stand being higher due being higher quality than the products of competitors. Place The standardised products and the high quality furniture both sell currently to larger retail outlets and also to individual order. Introduction of the furniture into a national market and also international market. Promotion Offer trials to nationwide retail outlets, both mid-market and up-market with the relevant products, with trial offers. Pay for advertising spend to promote the product within the area via local media, and also promote product and brand via in-store advertising and display stands. Brand awareness is very important at this stage. The Promotional Plan * Description of products available * A description of target audience * Identification of the price * Information on where the product will be sold * Methods to be used o Posters placed at locations in store and places frequented by your target audience o Press Release Informing of the product to be selling locally o Local Newspaper Advertising Advertising within locality using established media within the area promoting brand and product o Radio Advertising Informing of product and brand launch, aimed at prime time listening, selecting stations geared to 35+ and homeowner audience. Question 3 I am employed as the supervisor in the Personnel Department and am responsible for the overseeing of the day-to-day tasks of the department. I am currently studying for the Institute of Personnel Management qualification and have become more familiar with the concept of human resources. Present a paper to the Personnel director outlining the benefits of introducing a HRM approach to the management of people and in particular how this would improve both productivity and motivation. Motivation (Definition) a set of processes concerned with the force that energises behaviour and directs it towards attaining some goal. A strategic, coherent and comprehensive approach to the management and development of the organisations human resources in which every aspect of that approach is wholly integrated with the overall management of the organisation. HRM is essentially an ideology, quote M. Armstrong, taken from Handbook of Human Resource Management, Kogan Page, 1999. Human resources management activities relate to employees pay, welfare, conditions of employment and training. HRM is based on four principles * Employees must be seen as valued assets in which to invest. It is human capability and commitment, which, in the final analysis, distinguishes successful organisations from the rest, Storey. * HRM is of strategic importance and, therefore, needs to be considered by top management in the formulation of the corporate plan. * Commitment not compliance. The key levers (the development of human resources; evaluation of performance and the rewarding of it) are to be used to seek not merely compliance but commitment. In other words, employees should not be forced to work grudgingly, but by obtaining their wholehearted commitment * Strategic implications of HRM. HRM is therefore, seen to have long-term implications and be integral to the core performance of the business. It must be the intimate concern of the line managers. Line managers have the responsibility of managing their staff. The role of personnel function is to enable the line managers to fulfil their HRM responsibilities effectively. Soft and Hard Approach to HRM The soft approach can be closer than the traditional personnel approach. Soft HRM is an integrated strategic function that is concerned with nurturing people because they are human beings whose feelings should be considered and, developing this valuable resource is the best way to achieve results. The Hard approach is based on the belief that human resources are the key assets, with emphasis placed on * Getting more out of people * Using them in a more productive way The aims of HRM are the same whether hard or soft and as follows * Enable management to achieve organisational objectives via its workforce * Enable people to utilise their full potential * Foster commitment * Integrate human resources policies with business plans * Establish an environment to unleash the creativity and energy of the workforce * Encourage flexibility in the interests of an organisation that is able to adapt to the environment and achieve excellence The main areas of management activity associated with the HRM philosophy * Organisation, design and effectiveness especially in relation to teamwork, communications, customer service and change management * Resources providing human resources required by means of recruitment, retention and training programmes. * Performance management improving performance by means of appraisal * Reward management for example, linking pay to performance * Motivation redesigning jobs and devising rewards to motivate employees * Commitment The integration of the needs of the individual with those of the organisation * Employee Relations Policies and procedures to encourage cooperation to the mutual benefit to all * Flexibility by means of mulitskilling redesigning jobs and new patterns of work * Quality as a way of life * Culture management influencing behaviour and thereby attitudes by means of resourcing, performance management and reward strategies Leadership and Motivation In the HRM school, Leadership should be democratic rather than authoritarian, managers should consult employees on matters that affect them, important in gaining respect of both the manager and the company, motivation rewards of social and psychological, not just financial. Motivation is defined as in influence that cases people (employees) to want to behave in a certain way, and combined with ability can result in performance. The motivated worker will be keen to work, take pride in their work, will not display negative attitude towards the company, display high level of commitment and get satisfaction out of work, benefiting the organisation with higher productivity levels, lower labour turnover, lower absenteeism, improve quality with less waste, greater willingness to accept change, willingness to contribute ideas and take on additional responsibility, allowing the company to overall reap the benefits of even greater financial gain. In production department, for example, possible financial reward could be brought into place looking at Hertzbergs Hygiene factors of Pay and Benefits, Working Conditions, Company Policy, Status, Job Security, Supervision, Office and Personal Lift all set to motivate Achievement, Recognition, Job Interest, Responsibility and ultimately Advancement. HRM could look at setting up motivating factors with the sales department by setting targets based on achieving sales to new retailers nationwide with additional financial gain based on and over achieving rewards. The key concepts to adapting a HRM approach to the company would provide the following Competition advantage Aspects of the company that give it an advantage over its rivals Human Resource Management A strategic, coherent and comprehensive approach to the management and development of the companys human resources Personnel Management Management/administration of recruitment, welfare and training of the employees McGregors Theory x and Y (1960) McGregors Theory X and Y (1960) about managerial behaviour had a profound effect on management thinking and practice. His Theory Y principles featured in management training courses for a decade or more. They influenced the design and implementation of personnel policies and practices. The legacy today permeates the axioms of participative and total quality management and the continued practice of staff appraisal. McGregor defined assumptions that he felt underpinned the practices and stances of managers in relation to employees. These were evident from their conversations and actions. Two sets of propositions were dubbed Theory X and Y. He was saying that what managers said or showed in their behaviour revealed their theories-in-use. Their predisposition led managers to pursue particular kinds of policies and relationships with employees. McGregors Theory Y was interpreted and promoted as a one-best-way, i.e. Y is the best. Managers or aspects of their behaviour became labelled as Theory X, the bad stereotype and Theory Y the good. McGregor ideas were much informed by Maslows need satisfaction model of motivation. Needs provide the driving force motivating behaviour and general orientation. Maslows ideas suggested that worker dissatisfaction with work was due to poor job design, managerial behaviour and too few opportunities for job satisfaction. On the basis of these ideas about drives Maslow suggested a classification of needs related to the development of the person lower level needs giving way developmentally to higher order needs. Thus a hierarchy is suggested although not claimed by Maslow. Example of Maslows Hieratchy Benefits If we introduced a HRM approach to the company ultimately employees at all levels will feel motivated and productive as quoted by carrot stick philosophy acceptance, and produce the most productivity. Employees will feel more worthy with a much easier line of communication with everyone feeling a valuable part of the organisation. The company needs to introduce a leadership mentality rather than management leadership and nurturer a new leadership approach. At present the organisations communications systems are mostly paper and telephone based Present a discussion document to the Personnel director explaining the concept of this electronic office, including explanation of the relevant technologies and their potential benefits You should also point out any potential drawbacks from this innovation and conclude with an evaluation of whether the benefits outweigh the drawbacks or vice versa While predictions of the paperless office have yet to be fully realised, modern business now relies on a vast array of electronic equipment to function efficiently and effectively. The concept of a paperless office is to ensure productivity improvement and to use time more efficiently. At present most of the organisations communications are paper and telephone based. Initially, by utilising e-mail (electronic mail, which is the main use of the internet) the following advantages are gained by replacing paper telephone communication * Speed of movement and data * Paperless office * Accessible via any modem line * Delivery is faster than snail mail (post, especially useful when dealing overseas) * It overcomes the problems of timezones. The recipient does not have to be there to receive it * Like fax, it is possible to send messages to more than one person * E-mail addresses are portable * It enables users to exchange information with people * The cost is not dependent on the distance travelled * It is cheaper than fax or telephone * Cuts out general chat on the telephone * Less formal than a letter * The message will remain in the recipients e-mail account until it is collected * Can be sent with document or picture attachment * E-mails can be stored until recipient discards information Installing computerised systems with each department will also benefit from enabling all staff to access shared data from different departments computerised filing systems, e.g. access into word documents, spread sheets and other programme files. With transportable laptops, the office can be taken anywhere and even used worldwide, to assist in presentations and retrieving documents on a more global scale. Document Management System Another new form of the Electronic Office is the Document Management System offering solutions from the standalone scanner to a whole enterprise solution. E-Business solution companies analyse and advise on new business solutions. The Document Management System is a small step in the way forward for the paperless office, the benefits of incorporating the system is * Reduce office staff non-productivity rapidly locating folders and documents * Retain corporate knowledge and know where it is * Access paper documents within your business application * Scan your cabinets full of documents to secure them in case of Fire, Flood, Burglary or damage * Enable multiple people access to the same document or folder * Safely secure your documents for archival * Reduce boxes of stored paper * Automatically recognise forms and characters on incoming documents and locate them based on their content * Fax and receive documents directly from your desktop * Establish document privacy Electronic Office Manager It is a Human Resources and Process Management System that focuses on the internal operations of your business. The EOM provides businesses with a computerised Office Manager, with everything defined as a procedure, checklist or form. Job Descriptions become daily to do lists. To help manage time with automated reminders covering everything from training events to holiday management. EOM also provides Electronic Human Resource and Training Departments with employee files, applicant databases, and pre-written and editable employee handbooks and job descriptions. It also includes a system for creating and scheduling training. EOM even helps with financial forecasting and business planning features and point-to-point web navigation and link management. Operative Procedures, HRM, Business Development, Scheduling and Education Training are all available via EOM programme. Electronic Drawbacks Training and monitoring of training will be required at each stage to ensure competence and understanding of new system. With regular meetings required, and management of the change in system. Staff may be dissatisfied with the paperless office, and reluctant to the change. System failure. Without the adequate after support service and/or training there could be potential problems with system errors, which may result in non-productivity if staff rely on PCs when there is a breakdown. A recent example pf a paperless office is one department of Glasgow Borough Council, who recently had a computerised system developed solely for the use. Originally, each site manager called into an office each morning to collect information on various sites requiring repair assessment visits (approx 20 throughout the day) followed by a visiting to each site and manual completion of an in-depth form, and followed by manually inputting information on the computer for someone else then to call out to complete the repair work. The Borough Council have now developed a computerised system to enable them to receive the site information via electronic organiser, input the repair requirements, and return information upon completion for repairs to be carried out. Not only did this save much time on paperwork, but also time is more effectively managed by receiving full details of jobs throughout the day, which may be in areas the site manager is already working in. BIBLIOGRAPHY Jewell Bruce R, An Integrated Approach to Business Studies, Longman, [2000] ISBN 0582 40542 4 Ansoffs Matrix, www.marketingteacher.com/lessons/lesson_ansoff.html [accessed 31/05/02] How do I market My Inventions, http://www.montanaedu/wwwcxai [accessed 20/05/02] The Electronic Office, www.walters.co.uk/brochure/elecoffice1.htm [accessed 06/06/02] Imaging and Document Management Solutions, www.cabinetng.net/paperlessoffice.htm [accessed 05/06/02]

Grammatical constraints on code-switching

Grammatical constraints on code-switching Grammatical constraints on code-switching The behaviour of bilingual and multilingual speakers in a wide variety of speech communities and a broad range of social contexts has been the subject of research since the 1970s. Specific attention has been paid in the literature on bilingualism/multilingualism to the phenomenon of code-switching, one of the results of which has been the proposal of and subsequent debate surrounding a number of different grammatical approaches to it. This essay will attempt to examine and discuss some of the main grammatical approaches to code-switching, and go on to look at the arguments advanced to support (and undermine) these. As Poplack (1980) mentions, authors of the early literature when not focusing on the sociolinguistic and discourse elements relating to code-switching concluded that code-switching was a phenomenon that occurred at random. Subsequent research has shown that there are code-switching patterns and that switching is, in fact, subject to grammatical rules; the debate now is centred on what, exactly, those rules are. The various theories put forward by scholars in this field of research seek to elaborate universally-applicable rules that account for all instances of code-switching in all language pairs. As will be seen in this essay, and as is claimed by Gardner-Chloros and Edwards (2004) and Alvarez-Cà ¡ccamo (1998), none of these theories achieves its aim. It is worth bearing in mind that, broadly speaking, there are two main â€Å"types† of code-switching: intersentential and intrasentential. The latter is arguably of greater interest to researchers as â€Å"it is only there that the two grammars are in contact† (Myers-Scotton and Jake (1995)). There are several main grammatical approaches to code-switching which fall into a number of broad categories, each of which will be discussed in turn. Gardner-Chloros and Edwards (2004: 3-4) argue that any given grammatical approach to code-switching depends on the sense of the word â€Å"grammar†. They claim that at least five senses of the term can be identified and, of those five senses, grammatical approaches to code-switching have focused (explicitly or otherwise) on the following two: Formal grammar; and Chomskyan/Universalist grammar Poplacks study of code-switching amongst a sample of bilingual Puerto-Ricans in New York City (1980) is an empirical test of two simple constraints that, she claims, are universally applicable: the Equivalence Constraint and the Free Morpheme Constraint. The Equivalence Constraint dictates that intrasentential switches will only be made by any bilingual speaker (regardless of the speakers proficiency in his or her L2) â€Å"at points in discourse where juxtaposition of L1 and L2 elements does not violate a syntactic rule of either language, i.e. at points around which the surface structures of the two languages map onto each other†. So a bilingual speaker implicitly obeys the syntactic rules imposed by the respective grammars (which, in this model, are deemed to share rules that apply to the use of particular lexical items or language constituents) and will only make a switch from one code to the other at points where that switch will not violate the rules of either grammar. Indeed, the title of Poplacks paper is a case in point: (1) Sometimes I start a sentence in Spanish y termino en espanol(â€Å"and finish in Spanish†) Here, the switch is made at a point in the sentence where the Spanish subordinate clause â€Å"y termino en espanol† does not violate the grammatical rules of English (which are deemed to set the framework for the sentence): the verb â€Å"terminar† is correctly inflected (â€Å"termino† first person singular, present indicative) as the English verb â€Å"to finish† would be (i.e. â€Å"I finish†) had the clause been uttered in the latter language and indeed, the grammar of the subordinate clause does not violate any grammatical rules of Spanish, were the entire sentence to be uttered solely in Spanish. The Free Morpheme Constraint states that an intrasentential switch may be made by any bilingual speaker â€Å"provided [a] constituent is not a bound morpheme†. Thus a sentence such as: (2) And what a tertuliait was, Dios mio! (And what a gathering it was, my God!) is acceptable under the Free Morpheme constraint (note that idiomatic expressions such as Dios mio above are â€Å"considered to behave like bound morphemes in that they show a strong tendency to be uttered monolingually†), unlike a sentence such as: (3) *Estaba type-ando su ensayo (She was type-ing her essay) Subsequent discussion and research have shown that Poplacks Constraints theory is not universally applicable to all language pairs or all instances of code-switching. It would appear that the Constraints model sits perfectly with Poplacks own data set drawn from her sample Puerto-Rican speech community, and may be appropriate for language pairs which share particular grammatical, syntactic or lexical features, such that these facilitate switches that indeed do not violate any grammatical rules of either of the languages in contact. Nevertheless, Poplack has continued to defend and refine the model, arguing that instances of code-switching that violates either or both of the constraints are not code-switches at all, but rather what are termed by Poplack â€Å"nonce borrowings† (a term first coined by Weinreich (1953)). These, it is argued, are tantamount to single-word code-switches: words from the L2 are used in an L1-dominant utterance but have yet to become an established pa rt thereof. Poplack argues that the Free Morpheme constraint is â€Å"a consequence of the nonce borrowing hypothesis (Sankoff et al, 1990)†. However, further research has yet fully to substantiate the claim of universal applicability of the Constraints model to all language pairs and all instances of code-switching. Other constraints models have also been put forward, amongst others, by Pfaff (1979) in her study of Spanish-English code-switching and borrowing. She argues that there are four main types of constraints on constraints: functional, structural, semantic and discourse-related.   Further constraints have also been formulated by Woolford (1983) in her generative model of code-switching (again based on data from Spanish-English bilinguals). Such constraints models can be contrasted with the far more elaborate Matrix Language Frame model developed and advocated by Myers-Scotton and her collaborators (1993 and subsequently refined: 1995, 2000), in which sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics are combined within a grammatical approach to code-switching. The notion of a base or matrix language was not new when the MLF model was initially published by Myers-Scotton. Work by Klavans (1985), Joshi (1985) and others had already posited a â€Å"frame† or â€Å"matrix† into which elements of the other language could be embedded. The broad lines of the MLF are as follows. Myers-Scotton makes the case for code-switching to involve a base or matrix language (ML), into which pockets of embedded language are inserted. The ML, then, is the â€Å"unmarked† language choice that provides the grammatical structure for the utterance or discourse, with â€Å"islands† of EL inserted at grammatically acceptable points of that utterance. She distinguishes between different types of morphemes and the role they play in code-switching: the ML supplies the system morphemes (closed-class items) in the sentence, while the EL supplies a proportion of the content morphemes (open-class items). There is also a psycholinguistic dimension to the MLF model, in that the ML is deemed to be more â€Å"activated† than the EL; it therefore lends itself more readily to providing the frame for code-switching between a bilingual speakers two (or more) languages. In seeking to define â€Å"matrix language† Myers-Scotton argues that the decision made on the part of bilingual speakers to make intrasentential switches is â€Å"based on social, psychological and structural factors†. It is these factors that essentially form the basis of a definition of the ML. There are two structural criteria involved:  § The ML is the language that projects the morphosyntactic frame for the CP that shows intrasentential CS. This is operationalised by two principles: the morpheme order principle, which states that the â€Å"surface morpheme order (reflecting surface syntactic relations) will be that of the ML†; and the system morpheme principle, which states that â€Å"all system morphemes that have grammatical relations external to their head constituent (i.e. participate in the sentences thematic role grid) will come from the ML†.  § The ML generally supplies the greater number of morphemes in intrasentential code-switching. The sociolinguistic aspects of the MLF model underpin the psycholinguistic ones: as stated above, the ML is the â€Å"unmarked† or expected language choice for the exchange between code-switching speakers. It is pointed out, however, that this is not always the case, for instance when the speakers do not share the same first language. It is also argued that the ML can change over the course of an exchange, in relation to situational changes for example. The distinction between content and system morphemes is central to the MLF model, in that they help to identify the ML and EL. Under the MLF model, content morphemes come mainly from the EL, with system morphemes coming principally from the ML to form the frame in which code-switching can occur. There are, however, difficulties in using morphemes to identify the ML, particularly when a speakers bilingualism is quite balanced. The quantitative criterion states that the majority of the morphemes in a code-switched utterance will come from the ML. However, this raises the issue of sample size which Myers-Scotton herself concedes is difficult to determine and comes up against instances of code-switching by balanced bilingual speakers who use both of their languages more or less equally; the number of morphemes from each language will, therefore, be more or less equal, thus undermining the applicability of the quantitative criterion posited in the MLF model in identifying the ML. . Like the Constraints model, subsequent research and commentary have led to the MLF model being refined into its current form, the 4-M Model. In this theory, further distinctions are drawn between categories of system morpheme. Attempts are also made to resolve issues in the original MLF model, such as double morphology. An interesting aspect of the MLF model is that it does not adopt the â€Å"sentence† as an appropriate unit for the grammatical analysis of code-switching. Myers-Scotton instead uses the CP (complement phrase) as an analytical unit, which she defines as a syntactic structure expressing the predicate-argument structure of a clause, plus the additional syntactic structures needed to encode discourse-relevant structure and the logical form of that clause. Because CP explicitly assumes that the unit of structure includes COMP (complementizer) position, it is a more precise term than either clause or sentence. For all of its innovation and complexity which sets it in stark contrast with the simplicity of the Constraints model discussed above the MLF model does not account for all instances of code-switching in all language pairs, fitting only with certain language pairs, and particularly with Myers-Scottons data set drawn from East African languages and dialects; as well as â€Å"cases of very asymmetric bilingualism† where the speakers proficiency in one or other of the languages in contact is weaker. So neither the Constraints model nor the MFL model gives a complete grammatical description of code-switching; instead, they each describe a particular form or class of code-switching into which particular language pairs or forms of bilingualism fit. A more complete view is therefore required. Muysken (2000) proposes a typology of code-mixing (a term that he favours over â€Å"code-switching†, which he reserves for referring to instances of rapid interchange between languages in the same discourse) that attempts to encompass both of the models discussed above, with an additional component that he terms â€Å"congruent lexicalization†. He argues that there are three main types of CS: Alternation: this is a form of code-switching in which bilingual speakers alternate between their two (or more) languages. An example of alternational code-mixing is Poplacks Constraints model. Insertion: in this form of CS, speakers insert chunks of switched constituents from the L2 into discourse framed in L1. Muysken argues that the MLF model is an illustration of insertional code-mixing. Congruent lexicalization: this is code-mixing between language pairs that share close morphological and phonological ties. An example of one such language pair (and the corresponding code-switching) is provided by Clynes study of Dutch-English code-switching in Australia (1987). Muysken argues that different language pairs will fit into one or other of those types. So, rather than proposing a â€Å"one size fits all† grammatical approach to code-switching/code-mixing, he acknowledges that code-mixing/code-switching between different languages pairs will display different characteristics, rather than claiming that all instances of code-mixing/code-switching will fit into a single immutable model or theory. It is interesting to note that Muysken is also a proponent of the Chomskyan Government model of code-switching. In a paper co-authored with Di Sciullo and Singh (1986), it is argued that the government constraint, whereby there can be no switch in codes between a governor constituent and its corresponding governed item, will serve to predict which switches will and will not be acceptable, regardless of the languages in contact in a bilingual persons lexicon. The model, however, does not account for or predict all instances of code-switching; indeed, bilingual speakers will code-switch at any point in any given utterance, Government or no. Even when the scope of the model is restricted to lexical government by non-function words (Muysken 1990), it remains an overstatement. It must also be borne in mind that this model will change as many times as Chomskys theory of Universal Grammar goes through its various transformations; in its current incarnation of the Minimalist Program, the not ion of Government has been cast aside altogether owing to definitional difficulties Another take on the generativist approach to code-switching is the â€Å"null theory† of code-switching. A number have been put forward (Mahootian (1993), Chan (1999), MacSwan (1999, 2000), Woolford (1983)). The basic premise of the â€Å"null theory† approach whether it is couched in terms of Tree Adjoining Grammar (Joshi 1985) or the Minimalist Program/Principles and Parameters is that code-switching can be described in terms of grammatical principles relevant to monolingual grammars, without postulating additional devices or constraints that are specific to code-switching itself. This is an attractive argument, but far from compelling. Generativist models are highly abstract, to the point where they are too far removed from the realities of bilingual speech. The underlying premise of Chomskys notion of the monolingual â€Å"ideal speaker† is not helpful here, as it leads to generalisations about bilingual speakers that are simply not accurate, as they are not a reflection of how bilinguals combine their languages in speech. Additionally, the â€Å"ungrammatical† nature of speech weakens any grammatical model of code-switching (see below). There are a number of reasons why none of these models (perhaps with the exception of Muyskens proposed typology of code-mixing) can account for all instances of CS. 1. Variability: As Gardner-Chloros and Edwards rightly point out, this variability is found between communities, within a single community, right down to the speech of individuals and even within the speech of a single individual within the same conversation (2004: 4). This may be the end result of and, at the very least, related to the idiolectal competence of individual speakers. 2. Nature of bilingual speech: Bilingual speakers are known to employ all kinds of devices and â€Å"tricks† to avoid being constricted by the dictates of grammatical rules. Speakers use pauses, interruptions and other means to neutralize any grammatical awkwardness resulting from switching at a particular point in the sentence.These devices serve a functional purpose in allowing speakers to make full use of both of their languages, and legitimising combinations from languages that are typologically different (e.g. word order). 3. Abstract nature of the notion of â€Å"grammar† and â€Å"sentence†: These are abstractions used by linguists to conceptualise language behaviour, in this instance amongst bilingual speakers. The issue here is whether such abstractions are relevant to the analysis of CS as seen in bilingual speech. The concept of the â€Å"sentence† may not be appropriate to the analysis of code-switching in any event: speakers rarely utter fully-rounded, grammatical sentences in everyday discourse and code-switch at will with seemingly little concern for the grammaticality of the (intersentential or intrasentential) switches that they make so effortlessly. Furthermore, from a grammatical analysis perspective, Gardner-Chloros and Edwards argue that even if the sentence were to be accepted as the â€Å"upper limit of grammar† and a meaningful unit in the context of code-switching, this would mean that grammatical approaches would only seek to explain intrasentential swit ches whilst omitting intersentential switches and conversational â€Å"moves† (2004: 5). The fundamental question at issue is whether or not a grammatical approach to code-switching is even appropriate. Given the variability of code-switching and the nature of speech in general and bilingual speech more specifically it seems particularly difficult to formulate any kind of universally applicable principle or constraint that accurately predicts how, where and when a bilingual speaker will switch codes, let alone whether that switch will â€Å"grammatical†. Variability lays at the very heart of code-switching; it is a reflection of a human ability to handle and manipulate language in any way that serves the speakers purpose in any given situation and with any given interlocutor(s). Another salient point that emerges is whether code-switching is even an observable fact. Gardner-Chloros (1995) argues that CS is an â€Å"analyst construct†, a product of linguists conceptualisations of language contact and language mixing and, as such, not separable from borrowing, interference or pidginisation (1995: 86), be it in ideological or practical terms. She also argues that the abstract concept currently accepted in bilingualism research is â€Å"fuzzy† and should in fact be used as a much broader term for a range of interlingual phenomena in which strict alternation between two discrete systems is the exception rather than the rule (1995: 68). If that is indeed the case, is it possible to begin to formulate a â€Å"grammar of code-switching† when there is still uncertainty as to what code-switching actually is? The arguments put forward by Alvarez-Cà ¡ccamo (1998) are also related to the points raised by Gardner-Chloros. In tracing the development of code-switching as a field of bilingualism research and of applied linguistics as a whole, he distinguishes between linguistic varieties and communicative codes, arguing that code-switching pertains to the former category and, as such, suggests that â€Å"code-switching† is perhaps a misnomer. He proposes that the concept of CS in its current form be both narrowed to exclude unrelated phenomena that have come under the banner of â€Å"code-switching†, and broadened to include those elements that have been excluded (including aspects of monolingual speech). It is difficult to see how an all-encompassing approach to code-switching can be put forward until the phenomenon of code-switching has been properly identified (and presumably labelled: â€Å"In order to argue convincingly for or against the existence of â€Å"code-switching constraints† and â€Å"code-switching grammars† () research should first convincingly prove that (a) speakers who code-switch possess two (or more) identifiable systems or languages, each with its identifiable grammatical rules and lexicon; and (b) â€Å"code-switched† speech results from the predictable interaction between lexical elements and grammatical rules from these languages.† (Alvarez-Cà ¡ccamo (1998: 36)) However, the issue here again lays in the conceptualisation of bilingual speech. Abstractions used by linguists in examining language phenomena such as code-switching remove the â€Å"human† element reflected in discourse strategies employed by bilingual speakers (discussed above; see below). A further aspect of code-switching, while not strictly grammatical, is discussed by Bentahila and Davies (1995):   the variables related to language contact situations, and how those change depending on developments in the contact situations. In a study of different generations of Moroccan Arabic-French bilinguals, they examine the relationship between patterns of code-switching and patterns of language contact and the influence of extraneous factors on those patterns. They point out that code-switching is affected by the nature of the contact between a particular pair of languages: duration of contact, for instance, and the impact of governmental language planning policies. They found that while all the bilingual speakers in their sample speech community used the same languages, their use of those same languages depended on their proficiency in both, which in turn depended on their age and the effects of governmental language planning and nationalist policies pursued in the post-c olonial continuum. It could be argued that evolving patterns of code-switching contribute to the variability of code-switching practices amongst bilingual speakers and, therefore, constitute another (indirect) reason why grammatical approaches to code-switching so often fall short. In summary, then, a number of grammatical models of intrasentential code-switching, with each claiming to predict where in the sentence a bilingual person will switch languages and that such switches will be made in such a way as not to violate any of the grammatical rules of either of the languages in contact. It is contended that, rather than achieving that aim, each model is specific to the data sets on which they are based, and can only really apply to similar language pairs. They therefore only describe an aspect of a phenomenon that is far more complex than the models would suggest. Furthermore, the applicability of the various models also depends on the â€Å"kind† of bilingual concerned and their proficiency in their respective language pairs: the Constraints model appears to be more relevant to more balanced bilinguals, for instance, while the MLF model seems to be more appropriate to more asymmetric bilinguals. It must be remembered that the models are not in stasis but rather continually refined and amended in relation to developments in their particular theoretical backdrop: the Government model of code-switching, for instance, is based on a theory of Universal Grammar that is itself evolving over time. Muyskens typology of bilingual speech (2000), which draws on the leading models of code-switching/code-mixing and seeks to account for all instances of code-switching by taking into account the various aspects involved therein, appears to be the most rounded of the grammatical approaches to the phenomenon, in that it encompasses the disparate aspects that have formed the focus of individual models. There is also the issue of whether code-switching is a phenomenon in its own right and, if not, what linguistic phenomena the concept of code-switching can be deemed to cover. Has the concept become an umbrella term used to describe a number of different linguistic devices employed by bilingual speakers? Or are these elements that are indistinguisha ble from a wider phenomenon? To conclude, it would appear that research into and grammatical approaches to code-switching have lost sight of the fact that code-switching is an abstraction used by linguists to conceptualise an aspect of the behaviour of bilingual speakers. After all, â€Å"languages do not do things; people do things, languages are abstractions from what people do† . Such a conceptualisation has led to researchers attempting to fit bilingual speech behaviour to a particular model rather than the other way around, discounting aspects such as variability, bilingual discourse strategies and the fact that code-switching is a creative, innovative process designed, it would appear, almost to avoid grammatical constraints altogether. Abstract grammatical models cannot reflect the realities of language contact and use. Not only that, but code-switching is also a gauge of language change and shift; this being the case, it is plausible that a grammatical shift would ensue, thus undermining a given m odel. Factors such as those mentioned by Bentahila and Davies (1995) must also have some kind of impact on grammatical models when these are based on a language contact situation which is shifting and evolving. A step back towards the realities of bilingual communication and speech acts, combined with an acceptance of the variability that they necessarily entail as reflected in the typology proposed by Muysken (2000) would constitute a more appropriate starting point for any grammatical approach to code-switching that sets out to be all things to all bilingual speakers.

The Influences Of Tolkien In T Essay -- essays research papers

The Influences of Tolkien The influences of Tolkien are many and great, but of them all, three stand out most; his great love of nature that sprung from his experiences as a youth in the English Countryside, his acute sensitivity and desire to master language, and his involvement in trench warfare in the Great War. Tolkien himself vehemently denied that the war affected his story at all. 'The real war does not resemble the legendary war its process or conclusion. If I had been inspired or directed in the development of the legend, then certainly the ring would have been seized and used against Sauron.'; Tolkien's love of language persisted throughout his life from his child hood years till adulthood. When he was a boy he would study Welsh names that would rush by on railway coal cars, a...

Life In The Hood :: essays research papers

He lay in his bed motionless, reflecting upon his life and how it had changed so quickly. He had lost his mother to an evil cocaine addiction a year earlier and was left to take care of his younger brother. The rent was 3 months over due, the phone was cut off, and the electricity was most likely next. He had reached the point were he was fed up with life. Why had he been put in this position? He put most of the blame on his mother for she had been the one who had spent all of their money on drugs. But still he didn’t understand why he had to be responsible for his mother’s actions. What really enraged Maurice, was how selfish his mother was. She would rather get a quick high than ensure that her family was taken care of. But these thoughts occurred in his mind night after night. And each night he would come to the realization that he cannot escape from the grips of poverty. The only possible option for him was to work hard for the pennies that he was being paid. The alarm clock was blasting. Maurice woke up and looked at the time. It was 9:32am and he was a half hour late for work. In a panic he put on his shoes and ran out the door. He knew once he got to work Tony, the restaurant manager, was going to chew him out. He had been late earlier that week and Tony told him that if he was late one more time he was going to give Maurice the axe. So he began thinking of a good excuse to tell the boss why he was late. But his attention soon shifted when a 1999 Mercedes Benz SLK 400 sitting on twenty-inch chrome rims pulled over about 50 yards in front of him. His sprint slowed to a walk the instant he laid eyes upon the jet-black beauty. He kept walking towards the car trying to see who the owner was. To his amazement a young man, around his age, stepped out of the car. He knew at that point this guy didn’t earn his money the true American way; hard work and discipline. He had to have been a â€Å"Mob Pawn†. They were called this because the mob used them to do most of the work and were sacrificed in many situations just so they could win the â€Å"chess match†.

Comparing Two Types of Nokia Cell Phones :: Compare Contrast Comparison Essays

Comparing Two Types of Nokia Cell Phones Today, the cell phone has become a common device in the U.S. Almost all people in the U.S. use cell phones. By using these phones, people can be reached everywhere they go. Because of the development of technology, now there are many kinds of cell phones from different brands. Every cell phone company offers their products from the cheapest to the most expensive one with their advantages and disadvantages. So now, people can choose from many types of cell phones. In this paper, I will compare two different types of cell phone from Nokia. I decided to choose Nokia cell phones because I personally like this brand. It offers many types of cell phones, so we can have many choices when buying a cell phone. I chose Nokia 6600 and 6820 for comparisons because they both are the new products from Nokia. Like the pictures above show, Nokia 6600 and 6820 have different appearance. Nokia 6600 has a fat and short shape. Its buttons are arranged in a horizontal manner. Nokia 6820 has a thin and long shape. Its buttons are arranged in vertical manner. They have some differences in the specification. Nokia 6600 has 4.30 ounces weight and 4.28 inches long x 2.29 inches wide x 0.93 inch thick. It has a large color display with 176 X 208 pixel resolution, up to 65,536 colors. In addition, it has internal antenna and vibrating alert and 5-way joystick navigation. It applies the Symbian Operating System 7.0s, Series 60 platform. It uses extended Li-Ion Battery 850 mAh with digital talk time up to 4 hours and digital standby up to 8 days. For the service, Nokia 6600 has service for GSM/GPRS/HSCSD 900/1800/1900 MHz. Nokia 6820 has 3.5 ounces weight, 4.69 inches long x 2.17 inches wide x 0.91 inch thick. It has a high-resolution color display: 128 x 128 pixels, up to 4,096 colors. It also has 5-way joystick for easy navigation, internal antenna and vibrating alert. It uses extended Li-Ion Battery 850 mAh with digital talk time up to 3 hours and digital standby up to 12 days. It has service for GSM 850/1800/1900 MHz or GSM 900/1800/19 00 MHz. They also have different features. In the voice feature, Nokia 6600 has voice dialing and commands, integrated handsfree speakerphone for convenient communication, record and send memos, conversations, and sound clips3, record memos and conversations for up to 90 seconds.

India’s First Five Year Plan Essay

At the time of India’s first Five Year Plan, the government focused primarily on the agriculture sector. A large part of capital and technology was devoted to increasing agricultural production. This was effective at the time and is now referred to as the green revolution. The success of this plan convinced the Indian Planning Commission to shift their strategy. The NM strategy drew inspiration from the USSR and suddenly focused on rapid industrialisation in the second Five Year Plan rather than the agricultural sector as they had done in the previous plan. The NM strategy focused on industrialisation, mostly on the idea that manufacturing industries enjoy economies of scale, while agricultural production would face secularly diminishing returns. The productivity of labour could also be increased in capital intensive manufacturing industries while the surplus gained per labourer from agricultural production would be lower. Therefore, the available quotient for re-investment and the resultant growth would be higher from basic and heavy capital industries. Major developed capitalist countries like Japan, the U.S.A and the U.K took an alternate path to industrialisation called the â€Å"demand-pull† process. This involves starting with establishing consumer good industries, intermediate good industries and light engineering industries to supply simple materials and equipment to the consumer good industries. Agricultural development would lead to the growth of consumption good industries that supply basic consumption needs such as food and clothing and this in turn would lead to growth in agriculture. Under this system, even small increases in capital invested in agriculture would increase output and employment as opposed to the large amount of investment required for setting up heavy capital industries. This increase in agricultural growth would enhance the demand for consumer goods and gradually, basic and heavy capital industries would emerge. This path ensures a self-financing system without inflationary  pressures, as profits generated in the consumer goods industries would be re-invested in infrastructural industries. This could have been highly advantageous. The booming population in India, i.e. the growing labour force in the country was not accounted for due to the nature of capital-intensive industries. The growth of the basic and heavy capital goods industries did not increase the supply of essential consumption goods for an increasingly poverty ridden population. The large investment in infrastructural industries led to an increase in monetary demand and the slow growth in the supply of consumption goods could not match it. This led to growing inflationary pressures. In order to control the flow of private investment, policy makers implemented a system of licenses to ration industrial capacity between the existing firms. Therefore, private investment was not profitable and thus, efficiency, product innovations, technological advancements and competitive pricing were foregone. It can be seen that the fundamental problems of poverty and unemployment faced by India were not addressed by the N-M strategy. The neglect of agriculture can be seen from the allocation of the total outlay that was given to this sector in the Five Year Plans that followed the first one. Only large irrigation projects were financed and therefore the vast majority of small, marginal and subsistence farmers were neglected. The protection that these industries were given from foreign competition made India a high cost and technologically stagnant economy. In conclusion, it can be seen that only 25% of the plan expenditure was directed towards the rural economy which comprised 70% of the labour force of the country. Government employees and white and blue collar employees of public and private large-scale industries were the only people who benefited from the strategy.

Virgin Coconut Oil

Pilipog * The pilipog dwarf coconut is originally from the Philippines. Distinguishing features include female flowers, pink parts including the base of shoots, tips of roots and just germinated seedlings and round, green nuts. Read more:  Types of Dwarf Coconuts | eHow. com  http://www. ehow. com/info_8588814_types-dwarf-coconuts. html#ixzz2BPahLEvi Catigan * The catigan dwarf coconut is originally from the Philippines. Distinguishing features include medium-sized nuts, thick husk, long bunch rachis, round shape with a prominent stigmatic tip and green young nuts and petioles.Read more:  Types of Dwarf Coconuts | eHow. com  http://www. ehow. com/info_8588814_types-dwarf-coconuts. html#ixzz2BPamAIZK Mangipod Green * The mangipod green dwarf coconut is originally from the Philippines. Distinguishing features include strict dwarfism, high self-pollinating and retention of many ripe nuts at the crown due to the nuts drying while on the tree Read more:  Types of Dwarf Coconuts | eHow. com  http://www. ehow. com/info_8588814_types-dwarf-coconuts. html#ixzz2BPaqvpxp Refined * The main difference between virgin coconut oil and regular, organic coconut oil is the amount of refining the oil undergoes.Refined coconut oil means the oil has undergone a process of drying the coconut. This type of coconut oil may sometimes be called deodorized or bleached according to Live the Organic Life. This is usually done outside in the Sun. Generally, refined coconut oil is thought of as being of a lesser quality. Unrefined * Unrefined coconut oil may also be called virgin coconut oil. The type of method used to extract the oil from the coconut is done in the most natural way. This way, the coconut oil stays in its natural form without the use of any artificial filtering which is sometimes used in the process of refined coconut oil.No chemicals are used in the process of extracting coconut oil using this method. * Sponsored Links * Flour Mills Manufacturer Single flour mil l,small flour mill and complete set of flour mill. www. FlourMillMachine. com Smell and Taste * Virgin coconut oil maintains a sweet smell and taste of the coconut, whereas refined coconut oil will lose much of the flavor and smell. An easy way to know if coconut oil is unrefined is to hold a bit of it in the palm of your hand. Unrefined coconut oil should easily melt in the palm of your hand due to your body's temperature.Refined coconut oil will usually stay fairly solid without melting. Copra * Copra refers to the dried kernel or meat of the coconut. Refined coconut oil uses copras. Coconut oil made of copra is generally thick in consistency — notably thicker than virgin coconut oil. Oil made of copra is too thick to use as a moisturizer for the skin or a conditioner for the hair because it will sit on the skin without being absorbed. This can clog the pores and actually do more harm to the skin than help. Read more:  Differences Between Organic Coconut Oil & Extra Virgi n Organic Coconut Oil | eHow. om  http://www. ehow. com/info_8283628_differences-virgin-organic-coconut-oil. html#ixzz2BPf8AlVu ————————————————- Description VCO is a pale yellow to colorless oil with a distinct taste and scent. [1]  According to the standards set by the  Bureau of Product Standards  of the Philippine  Department of Trade and Industry  in  PNS/BAFPS 22:2004 with Amendment 1:2005, virgin coconut oil must be colorless, sediment free with natural fresh coconut scent and free from rancid odor or taste. It should not contain food additives and must have a maximum of . 0% moisture and volatile content to prevent rancidity. [2] ————————————————- Background Natural coconut oil has long been used in the  Philippines, since the raw material s are easy to obtain and the oil is easy to manufacture. Coconut milk, from which VCO is obtained, is a staple ingredient in most, as well as the  coconut oil  itself. Coconut milk and natural coconut oil are also used as hair conditioner and skin oil. When research showed the beneficial effects of natural coconut oil, the Philippines initiated market access for what is now called Virgin Coconut Oil.According to the Philippine  Department of Science and Technology, it was  Mt. Banahaw  Tropical Traditions that first entered the U. S. market in 2000 with an initial export of 800 kilos of VCO, which increased to 19 metric tons in 2002. In 2005, there were about 200 VCO producers with an approximate production capacity of around 250 to 300 metric tons per month. Aside from the VCO used as food supplement, VCO is now also used in other products such as coconut butter or cream, massage oil, shampoos and lotions. [3] ———————â€⠀Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- Production Process ere are three methods used in manufacturing virgin coconut oil. * Drying. Fresh coconut meat is quick-dried over low heat to produce the oil. * Wet-milling. Fresh coconut meat is squeezed to produce coconut milk. The oil is then separated from the water and other components of coconut milk through various methods such as boiling, fermentation, refrigeration, use of enzymes, and use of mechanical centrifuge. * Fermentation. This is the traditional method. Coconut milk extracted from fresh coconut meat is fermented for 1 to 3 days for the oil to separate from the water and other components of the milk.The oil is then slightly heated to reduce moisture content and filtered. [1] ————————————————- Significance Virgin coconut oil contains lauric acid, a medium chain fatty acid, which once dige sted is converted into monolaurin. Lauric acid is also found in human breast milk, and provides immune building properties to protect an infant from infections and diseases. Monolaurin destroys lipid-coated viruses, various pathogenic bacteria, and protozoa. [4]  A study done by  Conrado S.Dayrit  on HIV-infected patients at  San Lazaro General Hospital,  Manila  showed that virgin coconut oil has an anti-viral effect and can reduce the viral load of HIV-infected patients. [5]Research done by Mary Enig concludes that contrary to established belief, having virgin coconut oil in the diet helps to prevent hardening of the arteries and heart disease more than other vegetable oils. [6] ————————————————- References 1. ^  1. 0  1. 1  1. 2  Virgin Coconut Oil website. (accessed November 16, 2007). 2.   Department of Trade and Industry website. News article on Virgin Coconut Oil Standards (accessed November 16, 2007). 3. ^  Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research and Development (PCIERD) – Department of Science and Technology (DOST) website. News article on Virgin Coconut Oil (accessed November 16, 2007). 4. ^  Virgin Coconut Oil website. (accessed November 16, 2007). 5. ^  Coconut Oil in Health and Disease: Its and Monolaurin’s Potential as Cure for HIV-AIDS. Study done by Dr. Conrado S. Dayrit (accessed November 16, 2007). 6.   The Effects of Coconut Oil on Serum Cholesterol Levels and HDLs  Report 14, Keep Hope Alive by Mary Enig, on the Emerging Worlds of Progressive Medicine website (accessed November 16, 2007). 1. Why is Virgin Coconut Oil healthy? Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) contains no cholesterol. It is high in lauric acid, the main nutrient found in mothers? breast milk that is known to strengthen human immune system. It is made up mostly of medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) making it easier to di gest and absorb by the body. VCO also naturally contains vitamin E, a well-known anti-oxidant that protects our cells from damage.   | 2. How is VCO different from other coconut oils? VCO is made from fresh coconut meat (non-copra). It is extracted through cold process and no chemicals were added in the process. On the other hand, commercial grade coconut oils are made from copra (sun-dried coconuts) and undergo refining, bleaching and deodorizing (RBD), which make the nutrients and natural taste disappear, and may contain harmful chemicals. |   | 3. How does Nutrizen Extra Virgin Coconut Oil differ from other VCO? Nutrizen Extra Virgin Coconut Oil (EVCO) is extracted through an â€Å"absolutely no heat† mechanical process.It does not undergo fermentation where coconut milk is left for 12-24 hours to let oil and water separate. Nutrizen EVCO is extracted and packed within a few hours from the time the coconuts were picked, making it fresh with no rancid smell and taste. | Coconut Oil Extraction Methods By Jane Peterson, eHow Contributor Read more:  Coconut Oil Extraction Methods | eHow. com  http://www. ehow. com/about_5417900_coconut-oil-extraction-methods. html#ixzz2BPlTbA00 Coconut oil extraction can be done through traditional methods or with help from modern machinery.Pressure, heat and motion are forces that are often used to separate the coconut oil from the white coconut meat. Depending on the type of extraction method used, the coconut oil extracted may be completely pure, or it may require additional refining processes. Aqueous Processing * Using water to extract coconut oil is also known as aqueous processing. The first step of this method is to separate the flesh from the shell of the coconut. Next, the coconut meat is boiled in water. As the coconut meat cooks and softens, oils escape from the meat and are separated from the water; the coconut oil is skimmed from the surface and collected.Ram Press * The ram press literally presses the coconut oil from the coconut using blunt force. This type of press utilizes a heavy piston and metal tube that is able to filter out the coconut oil; once the coconut meat is loaded into a metal tube, a hydraulic jack is used to power the press into the meat and the oil is squeezed out from the tube and collected. Ram press coconut oil extraction helps to preserve the coconut oil in its raw state and does not require further refining methods. * Sponsored Links * Yifan – Mobile Crusher Specialized in Mobile Crusher, Export to 50 Countries.Contact Us! www. yfcrusher. com Mechanical Centrifuge * A mechanical centrifuge can be used to obtain virgin coconut oil, which is considered to be one of the purest forms. During this process, coconut meat is emptied into a machine which chops the meat into tiny pieces. These little pieces are placed into a light screw press and the milk is extracted from the meat; then, the remaining coconut is placed in a high speed mechanical centrifu ge which rapidly spins the coconut. Through the spinning process, the oil is separated from the meat and collected.Mechanical centrifuge coconut oil retains a strong coconut taste and smell and requires no refining processes. Ghani Extraction * Ghani coconut oil extraction is a traditional method that uses a giant pestle and mortar system to crush the coconut meat. Today, mechanized Ghani extraction systems are available, although traditional Ghani presses powered by donkeys or horses are still in use. While Ghani oil extraction results in a pure form of coconut oil, it is labor intensive and collects less oil than methods mentioned above. Expeller Method An expeller coconut extraction method uses a mechanized cylindrical barrel to create a pulverized version of coconut meat known as coconut cake. Heated coconut is placed into the barrel where a rotating metal rod is used to crush the coconut. This process helps to breakdown the constituents of the meat to prepare the meat for oil e xtraction. The last step in the processes uses a chemical solvent, hexane, to separate the coconut cake from the coconut oil. Refining is often necessary to cleanse the extract from the oil. Read more:  Coconut Oil Extraction Methods | eHow. com  http://www. ehow. om/about_5417900_coconut-oil-extraction-methods. html#ixzz2BPlgucUh ————————————————- TYPES OF COCONUT OIL Coconut oil has been widely used in Asian and Pacific countries throughout history. The oil is extracted from the coconut and used in soap, cosmetics and cooking. According to the Coconut Research Center, coconut oil was also used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of health problems due to its anti-microbial properties. However, when it comes to coconut oils, not all are created equal. There are different types that have different uses and benefits. Virgin Coconut OilAccording to the Coconut Dev elopment Board of India, virgin coconut oil is extracted from fresh coconut meat. During this process, no high temperatures or chemicals are used, allowing this variety of coconut oil to maintain many of its natural health properties. The fat contained in this type of oil is about 50% lauric acids. Lauric acid is converted to monolaurin in the body, which is considered an anti-microbial substance leading to improved immunity. In addition, virgin coconut oil is made up of medium-chain fatty acids, which are believed to be metabolized more efficiently than other fatty acids.This leads to claims that coconut oil can assist with weight loss, which are supported by scientific findings, including an article published in the journal Life Sciences showing that an increased energy expenditure after eating medium-chain fatty acids could promote weight loss. Sponsored Links Soap making machineJiujiang Yixin produce all kinds  of soap making machinewww. jx-yixin. com/en Refined Coconut Oil Re fined coconut oil is extracted from the copra, or dried coconut kernel. According to the World's Healthiest Foods (WHFoods), a non-profit, research-based health organization, refined coconut oil undergoes rocessing, bleaching and deodorizing. It is often referred to as â€Å"RBD Coconut Oil† to stand for â€Å"refined, bleached and deodorized. † This type of coconut oil is often used in cooking because it has a desirable smoke point of about 450 degrees Fahrenheit. However, the processing used to make this type of oil can disrupt the favorable fatty-acid balance, which is often associated with the health benefit of coconut oil. Organic Coconut Oil Organic coconut oil is named for the origins of the coconut the oil comes from.According to Organic Facts, a privately owned website with the goal of distributing unbiased information on organic foods, these coconuts should come from palm trees grown in organic manure. There should be no use of synthetic fertilizers or insect icides. Further, there should be no use of chemicals in the extraction of the oil. WHFoods states that choosing organic coconut oil leads to a stronger assurance of higher quality. However, Organic Facts concludes that it is very difficult to verify the validity of organic coconut oil to ensure that it is, in fact, organic.In addition, it is nearly impossible to tell the difference between organic and non-organic coconut oil in terms of flavor and odor. Organic coconut oil can also be found in the virgin form, which is highly regarded due to its being both virgin, meaning more natural, and grown under organic conditions. While extra virgin coconut oil is a term sometimes used, there is no set standard or recognition of the use of the term â€Å"extra virgin. † Sponsored Links http://www. livestrong. com/article/22890-types-coconut-oil/#ixzz2BPsloYRp The Coconut TreeIn many areas of the world, especially the tropical tourist type of places, the first thing that you see on any of the advertising media be it television, guide books of post cards are white sandy beaches and Coconut Trees! I am sure that most people reading this will probably say something like, Coconut trees, so what about them? The simple Coconut Tree is probably one of the most useful and versatile trees in the world as it is as near as can be 100% usable and many areas people rely on this tree for their survival and protection from the elements and other uses! Typical AdvertisementAs a kid in England, we saw the Coconut Fruit at the fair grounds or carnivals, they were small brown hard shelled nuts which were actually good for Copra, not really for eating but we did not know any better and ate it as it came. The thought that the nut actually grew within the protective confines of a Husk never came to light so you can imagine my surprise when I joined the Army, travelled overseas and saw Coconuts in their natural form! Being from Bradford, at first I did not believe it but when I saw one being opened then the reality of the situation took over and I then believed what I saw, bloody amazing I thought!Over the years I have traveled to many different countries and have seen millions of Coconut Trees but it was really here in the Philippines that I actually saw the many different uses and the different things that can be done with the different parts of the tree. Actual Beach Scene. The first thing that you see in many areas of the Philippines are piles of ready cut Coco Lumber which is used in all kinds of construction projects from the basic scaffolding, roofing, door frames etc. It is not really the best construction lumber as it has many problems attached to it.To get useful lumber from the tree it must be at least 60 years old, this gives it a good chance of giving good hard lumber. Before a tree can be cut down, someone has to climb the tree and remove all the Coconuts, if not, when the tree comes down all the Coconuts will be fired away like cannon balls in all d irections as the tree will whiplash  before it hits the ground! To cut the lumber is not easy as there is no grain  as you get on a normal tree  just a fibre type of structure which gives all kinds of problems when cutting which makes the chain saw the preferred tool for cutting the lumber.In the same tree you will get both hard and soft wood, if the tree is cut before it is really mature, the soft parts of the tree will dry out like Balsa Wood which is pretty useless for any purpose with the exception of firewood and it burns so fast its really not much good for that! A Modern Dwarf Coconut Plantation. One English friend of mine ordered some Coco Lumber to construct a building but was very unhappy with what was delivered. He complained that the lumber was too soft and had water coming out of it and said it was reject and he would return it!I advised him to use it straight away while it was still fresh but he kept on complaining for another couple of months before he cooled do wn and decided to use it! His next complaint was that he could not drive a nail into it as it was too hard, in the end he had to pre drill every hole and use concrete nails to join the pieces together! A very sad part of this story is that the Coconut Trees as we know them are being chopped down by the millions for the building trade but unfortunately they are being replaced with new Dwarf Varieties which will produce Coconuts within 5 years but will never grow to the size to give any amount of lumber.The outer skin of the tree can be used for making fences as it is very tough and braves the elements very well. I used it when we had our Carinderia to clad the inside walls. Once varnished it looks very good and makes an unusual but pleasing to the eye type of finish. Harvesting. As the tree is growing we all know that coconuts are harvested, this is about every 3 to 4 months. The younger nuts are opened and the soft sweet meat, Buko is the local name, is eaten and the juice can be dr unk. The milk of the Coconut is really full of every good thing that the body needs to survive with the exception of potassium which you get from bananas!In the Second World War, many prisoners of war owe their lives to the healthy milk and meat of the Coconut! As a piece of usless information, did you know that more people are killed every year by falling Coconuts than are killed by Sharks! Beware or Ouch. Within the older nuts, the meat is thick and hard and is called Copra, this meat is first dried and then processed into all kinds of things, oil, soap, cosmetics and even fuel for vehicles! Without the Coconut many of the worlds female population might not be quite as good looking as the Coconut products do wonders for their skin!That’s not quite the end of the actual Coconut as the shell can be cooked and turned into a type of high quality charcoal while the husk can be processed and turned into very hard wearing door mats or as I remember once again from being a kid, the big and very course floor mats in the school gym! In some households the maids will use half of the coconut husk under one foot and will polish the floors to a high shine while dancing to music! This could be a good workout for some of you ladies out there! Tuba Collector with his collector. Pretty impressive for just a tree don’t you think but there is more!As the tree is still alive, local people the world over milk the sap from the tree and let it ferment into Tuba or Palm Wine as it is called in some countries. The problem with this harvest is that the men in the household get the younger members to do the daily harvest then the older men like to drink it! The wives, who want to sell the Coco Vinegar are prepared for this so usually allow the men to have one container to drink while they secretly squeeze calamansi juice into the rest causing the fermentation process to start immediately thus making the sap wine undrinkable!Ready to Harvest. Once the tree has been cut dow n, within the top portion is what they call Coconut Heart. This is a kind of vegetable I suppose but is very good to eat and is made into several dishes including spring rolls! The leaves of the tree are used for roofing material and is totally waterproof if maintained correctly. The Philippine name for this kind of roof is Local Zinc! Many people who visit the Philippines are truly amazed when they shelter under a Coco Nipa Roof and stay dry.There are probably more uses for the Coconut Tree which I have not discovered yet but I am sure that by now, the next time that you see a Coconut Tree you might think of this useful edition to any country in a different light! In Dubai for instance they have even built a new island in the shape of a Coconut tree! Weird. ————————————————- Philippines: Researchers develop high-yield coconut varieties by making hybrids out of hybrids The Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA) is succeeding n its 16-year search for ideal coconut varieties to replace aging and unproductive coconuts through a novel method, making synthetic varieties out of hybrids and ensuring higher yields through better coco juice, copra and other byproducts. Administrator Oscar Garin has been trying to implement a replanting system that would reduce substantially the tall varieties favored by Filipino farmers and replace them with hybrids that come from multiple ancestors, with most of the planting materials developed in the silty, clay loam of the 425-hectare San Roque PCA farm in Zamboanga City.Garin, who has been in the forefront of the battle against the invasive coconut pest Brontispa longissima, earlier slapped a moratorium on the cutting of coconut trees to preserve tree stands that had been saved from the pest and improve production. For nearly 70 years, the country dictated copra prices since the Philippines sold nearly 80 percent of its domes tic production of coconuts, scientifically known as Cocos nucifera L. PCA breeders at the Zamboanga Research Center (ZRC) are actually working to develop a unique farmers’ variety that would fit the tradition of planting seeds from any high ? ielding tree for successive cropping. Since the late 70s, PCA had been developing an open pollinated variety (OPV) through the hybridization of hybrids of six Tall coconut cultivars, with research intensifying in the last 16 years. Thus, they have developed a genetically multi-ancestored coconut variety that combines the agronomic qualities of the four local farmers’ traditional Tall varieties (Laguna, Bago Oshiro, Baybay and Tagnanan) and two foreign varieties (West African and Rennel. According to Garin, the results of this untried method of coconut breeding could provide the answer to the country’s persistent need for low input, high quality planting material. In effect, the PCA’s work is the pioneering geneticall y enhanced coconut variety that combines high yield precocity, vigor and durable genetic stability from generation to generation, said Ramon Rivera, head of ZRC’s breeding and genetics division. The synthetic variety, now known as PCA Syn Var001, Rivera, along with PCA breeders G. A. Santos, S.M. Rivera, E. Emanuel and G. B. Baylon, noted that to revive and develop the coconut industry, there was a need to use fertilizers to increase yield in old strands and accelerate replanting of â€Å"senile† and unproductive palms. The hybrids grow faster and are more precocious apart from producing higher and more stable yield of copra. However, they produce many small nuts and are threatened by short lifespans due to the influence of dwarf parent and could be unsuitable for the partiality of farmers to use seeds for a net crop.Using the seeds from hybrid varieties or simply planting second generation filial seeds was discouraged mainly due to its disastrous results technically, the second generation seeds were mixtures of all sorts of individuals resulting from combined effects of open pollination, cross pollination, self ? pollination and backcrossing that occurs during the time of pollination. In overcoming the problem, the PCA focused its breeding strategy on the farmers’ practice. The idea was to breed and select coconut planting materials with high and stable yield. It should also reproduce through open pollination.In their research, the PCA breeders found that coconut hybrids were good, but developing countries like the Philippines could hardly sustain their use. As they cited in their study, â€Å"the use of the synthetic variety offered prospects but it would take a long time before we can perfect this unconventional method. † Yet, they also quickly pointed out that this unconventional method of â€Å"making ‘hybrids out of hybrids’ could be the cheapest and sustainable answer to the persistent problem of supplying elite planting materials for the country’s planting and replanting program. Today, the propagation of the synthetic variety is being considered by the PCA as the ultimate strategy in the mass propagation of improved materials. (biolife news service) Philippines: Coconut seed farms eyed for synthetic variety The Department of Agriculture through the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA) is eyeing the establishment of more coconut seed farms in strategic coconut-growing areas for its latest hybrid, the Orgullo Tall SV San Ramon Coconut Variety.Otherwise known as the synthetic coconut variety, this superior coconut breed developed by scientists at the Philippine Coconut Authority -Zamboanga Research Center is a high-yielding coconut variety recognized as the first in the world, said Ramon L. Rivera, head of the PCA-Zamboanga Research Center. Rivera presented the business prospects for technology transfer during an investor’s forum at the Nido Fortified Science Discovery Center at the SM Mall of Asia in Pasay City last week as part of the 5th National Biotechnology Week celebrations. Dubbed as OK ang Kabuhayan Sa Biotech! the forum aims to commercialize products of agricultural biotechnology through public-private partnership, said Department of Agriculture-Biotechnology Program Office (DA-BPO) outgoing director Alicia Ilaga. She said through technology transfer, the DA-PCA and her office aims to encourage investors to help put up coconut seed farms all over the country to meet the expected increase in the demand for coconut both here and abroad. â€Å"With the increasing demand for coconut because of the biofuels law, the prospects for putting up coconut seed farms are bright,† she said.According to Rivera, the product, the first in the country and recognized as the first in the world, has a yield potential of 7,730 to 20,540 nuts per hectare or equivalent to 3. 2 to 6. 7 tons of copra per hectare. He said the synthetic coconut variety produces 60 to 150 nuts per tree, a 50- to 260-percent more than the current average of 43. â€Å"Unlike the hybrid palms, second generation SV San Ramon nuts can be replanted and assured to bear fruits even more. This pioneering genetically enhanced coconut variety combines high yield precocity, vigor, and durable genetic stability from generation to generation.This characteristic of the SV San Ramon fits the farmers’ unique tradition of planting seeds from any high-yielding tree for successive cropping,† he said. According to the DFA-BPO, coconut production constitutes one of the four major sectors of Philippine agriculture, the others being rice, corn, and sugar. Coconut is planted in 3. 258 million hectares, which accounts for 27 percent of the total agricultural lands. About one-third of the Philippine population depends mainly on coconut production for its livelihood.Sixty-eight (68) of the 79 provinces in the country are in the coconut regions, producing an average of 14 bill ion nuts annually. In terms of export earnings, coconut is rated as an $800-million industry. These facts could only underscore the coconut industry to obviously be of crucial importance to the country, Rivera stressed. â€Å"A 50-hectare farm requires an estimated initial investment of P12 million. Financial projections showed that this investment could generate an IRR of 38 percent, with payback period of 10 years,† he said.Meanwhile, individual farmer-investors who would like to develop a one-hectare of Syn Var monocrop, needs an estimated amount of P65,000. This amount excludes the cost of lot for development. In a 25-year projected production period, an IRR of 30 percent and a payback period of 11 years could be achieved, he said. Orange Dwarf Coconut, is a beautiful yellow and orange colored variety of Coconut commonly grown in Konkan region of India. In Konkani, this variety is known asGendale. Many of my family members who own farmlands and ancestral fields take great pride in harvesting this variety of Coconut.I have vivid memories of sipping farm fresh coconut water drawn from freshly plucked Coconuts from my Grandfather's farmlands. In those days, Coconuts were an easily available commodity and paying for a bunch of them was certainly unheard of. The Orange Dwarf coconut tree grows to about 10-15 metres in height as opposed to conventional Coconut trees which shoot anywhere from 20 to 50 metres in height depending on the soil, climate and type of nutrition provided to the tree. When I was a child this variety was a common one.However now with less forest regions and dwindling green fields and farmlands this Coconut is becoming a very rare and precious variety. A chilled glass of this coconut water is by and far the best and tastiest one I've ever had. Many agro and horticulture based initiatives are currently being undertaken to propagate and multiply this rare and precious variety of Coconut. Difference between a brown coconut and a green co conut? There is only one coconut, produced by the coconut palm tree, which may come in green or red/orange colours.The difference in green or brown is simply differing stages of maturation. Green or young coconuts commonly have their tops sliced off, add a straw and presto you have a ready-made refreshing tropical drink! That is  coconut water, which is very different from the  coconut milk  used in cooking. The meat is tender and translucent, which you can scrape out to eat after your drink or add it to fruit salads & canned mixed fruits for a tropical twist. Brown or mature coconuts are commonly sold with the already brown dried husk removed.The meat has become more firm and opaque white. I understand that some people produce coconut milk by mixing the meat with the coconut water eg. Hawaiians. In South East Asia, the brown shell with just a thin layer of meat left is ground up. The fresh ground coconut is placed in a muslin bag with 1 cup of water added, the bag is then squ eezed to produce thick coconut milk (equivalent to canned coconut cream); this is used in SE Asian desserts & added at the end of cooking curries for extra creaminess & coconut flavour.After the first squeezing, about 4 cups of water are added for the second squeezing to produce a thinner coconut milk that is more liquid. This can be added during the curry cooking process, for desserts, making coconut rice etc. Note that if you let coconut milk boil, it tends to separate and the resultant curry has a higher chance of turning rancid. And yes, you need to refrigerate coconut milk as it spoils fast.